Evaluation of the commercialization Essay Example for Free

Evaluation of the commercialization Essay This paper discusses and evaluates both the negative and positive aspects and raised controversial issues regarding Bt-Corn, a transgenic maize developed through genetic engineering and biotechnology methods, and will finally conclude that the commercialization of Bt-Corn breeds for the past 14 years have been both economically advantageous and beneficial for the environment. The purpose of this paper is to further educate and inform the general audience regarding issues relating with genetically modified organisms and will try to disprove negative speculation and ambiguity with statistical data and experimental evidence. Introduction Recent development and advances in the field of biotechnology and genetic engineering has enabled scientists today to improve crop varieties through alteration of their most fundamental building blocks, their DNA. These alterations of the genetic material allow scientists and researchers to develop ‘new species’ and breeds of organisms which posses certain altered favored traits, which would not otherwise naturally exist in the organism. (Peairs, 2007) However, there is much ambiguity and controversies surrounding the whole field of genetic engineering of organisms and their commercialization. Bt-corn, a breed of transgenic maize whose genetic material has been altered to include the ability to produce a certain toxin that has specific insecticidal property against pests, has been commercialized now for several years in the US and also in several other countries such as Canada, Germany, Spain, Argentina, Honduras, South Africa and the Philippines. (Wu, 2006) The prefix ‘Bt’ from Bt-Corn originates from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a species of soil bacterium that produces the insecticidal crystal protein or delta endotoxins, toxins that kill crop pests. Genetic engineering has allowed scientists to take the single gene that controls the production of the delta endotoxins from Bt, create a modified version of it and synthesize it with the DNA of selected corn species using recombinant DNA technology. This new set of ‘genetic code’ allows the plant to produce the delta endotoxins by itself; hence it is able to repel crop pests by itself. This newly acquired attribute is like a miracle for farmers, not just corn farmers since the insecticidal attribute of ‘Bt’ has also been implemented in several other crops such as Bt-potatoes and Bt-sweet corn. However, there have been several issues raised against the commercialization of Bt-corn in recent years due to investigations, which reveals how Bt-corn pollen proves to be lethal to other species of organisms that are not considered as pests. (Peairs, 2007) This paper will discuss, evaluate and finally demonstrate how the commercialization of Bt-Corn breeds is overall both economically efficient and beneficial for the environment through the following points: * Origins of Bt and Bt-Corn * Mode of action of Bt toxins Economical and environmental advantages of Bt-Corn * FDA regulations on genetically modified organisms * Controversies and issues raised * Evaluation Origins of Bt and Bt-Corn As previously stated above, Bt-Corn is a breed of transgenic maize whose genetic material have been altered and combined with the insecticidal crystal protein-producing trait of the common naturally occurring soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. Shigetane Ishiwata, a Japanese biologist, was the first to discover Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in 1901. However, it was not until Ernst Berliner rediscovered it in 1911 in Thuringia, Germany, that the bacterium was named Bacillus thuringiensis. In 1938 a French company started commercially producing the combination of the bacterium and its toxin crystals as a pesticide, calling it Sporeine, and in the 1950’s American organic farmers started using Bt on their crops as a way to control pest. (Aroian) As research methods improved (1960’s) and new Bt species were found producing thousands of other specific toxic proteins, more and more farmers started to use Bt. However, it was not until advancements in genetics and genetic engineering in the 1990’s that researchers were able to detect and isolate the specific genes that trigger production of the toxins and transfer it into certain species of crops, such as Bt-Corn. The first Bt crop that was registered with the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), which allowed for its commercialization, is the Bt-Corn. (Aroian) In 2004, Bt-Corn comprises more than ? of the total acres of cornfields in the United States itself. Wu, 2006) According to Clive James, the chair of the ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications), today (2002) the total Bt-Corn fields in the world approximates to 25 million acres. (James, 2002) Mode of actions of Bt toxins Bacillus thuringiensis produces certain proteins, categorized as crystal proteins, which are very specific, well known for its ability to target and inhibit specific metabolic processes of certain speci es of organisms, mainly insects. Investigations have revealed that most of these insecticidal crystal proteins, when activated (when they come into contact with their specific host), attaches itself to the epithelium cells of the gut of the insects and causes the generation of pores in the cell membranes. These pores in the membranes of the epithelium cells, outermost cells that line the surfaces of structures, such as the gut, of organisms, disrupts the osmotic balance of the cells, causing them to swell and lyse. (Hofte, 1989) In simpler terms, basically these proteins (toxins) cause imbalance of water absorption (osmotic imbalance) in the cells of the ‘organs’ of specific insects, which causes these cells to swell and break (lyse). They are also very specific and selective on the species of insects they are able to affect, making Bt toxins potent in eradicating pests while being relatively harmless towards other organisms. There is substantial evidence that the toxins (insecticidal crystal proteins) are not harmful to human health nor are they detrimental for the health of vertebrates (mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, bony fish and sharks). According to Peairs, these toxins are considered to be very selective and very safe for humans and non-targeted organisms when compared to the most conventional and common pesticides used nowadays since they only attack certain groups of insects. (Peairs, 2007) Economical and environmental advantages of Bt-Corn It has been several years now, more than a decade, since the commercialization of Bt-Corn breeds and now more than ever, we are able to see statistical data and actual evidence that overall, using Bt-Corn is both economically efficient and beneficial for the environment. Economic advantages of Bt-Corn According to a study by Brookes, there have been substantial net economic benefits at the farms, totaling up to $5 billion in 2005 and $27 billion during the first decade (1996-2005) of the commercialization of genetically engineered crops. For the genetically engineered maize species, including Bt-Corn and other forms of genetically modified corn, boosted farm incomes by over $3. 1 billion since 1996. In the United States alone genetically modified maize crop income benefits accumulates to a little under $2. 3 billion, which is about 88% of the world GM maize crop income. (Brookes, 2006) The main reason for its economic advantage is its ability to produce higher yields of the same, or even better, quality of produce compared to ‘organic’ corn because two reasons. The first reason is that since pests are not lured to the crop, they unhindered and are able to flourish and produce more yields. The second reason is that the ability to self-pro duce insecticidal toxins allows farmers to cut down costs to maintain the crop since they do not have to purchase massive amounts of pesticide. This also means that less time will be spent on crop walking and the application of pesticides and herbicides, less usage of energy associated with less spraying, savings in costs of machinery and machinery usage (from less spraying and reduced harvest times) and also the unseen benefits in the health and safety of farm workers that is caused by handling pesticides. (Brookes, 2006) Environmental advantages of Bt-Corn The usage of Bt-Corn allows farmers to stop the usage of environmentally hazardous chemicals, may it be pesticides or herbicides. Overall between the years 1996 and 2005, GM crops have caused the net reduction in the environmental impact on the cropping area by 15. 3% while the total volume of active ingredient usage has also been reduced by 7%. Specifically in the GM maize sector there have been a net reduction in the environmental impact on the cropping area by 4. 6% through the reduction of pesticide usage and another net decrease in 4% in the environmental impact through the usage of more environmentally benign herbicides. Brookes, 2006) There has also been a decrease in greenhouse gasses emission; excess greenhouse gasses emission is a factor contributing to global warming. Brookes states in his article, that the two main reasons for the decrease in green house gasses emission is due to two factors. The first being reduced fuel usage from the less frequent need of using pesticides and herbicides applications (machinery used for spraying). From 1996 to 2005, it is estimated that there has been a reduction i n carbon dioxide emission of 4,613 million kg, calculated from the reduced fuel usage of 1,679 liters. In comparison, the permanent carbon dioxide savings from reduced fuel usage from 1996 to 2005 by planting GM crops is equivalent to the removal of 2. 05 million cars from the road for one year, assuming that a car does an average of 15,000 km per year, producing 2,250 kg of CO2 per year based on the fact that an average family car produces 150 grams of CO2 every km. (Brookes, 2006) FDA regulations on genetically modified organisms With the development in genetic engineering and biotechnology there is urgency and a need to both control and oversee products and methods used, especially relating with food products. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are the three main supervisors of genetically modified foods. The FDA, the official government agency in charge of regulating food, drug and cosmetic laws and ensuring safety of food (other than meat), food additives, medicines, medical devices, veterinary drugs, cosmetics and genetically modified food products, plays the major role in the actual ‘screening’ of products that are available for the public. The FDA categorizes genetically modified food products under the ‘GRAS’ list; the GRAS list comprise of products that are ‘generally recognized as safe’, which demands the manufacturers to be responsible for the safety of their own products, allowing them to place products into the market without pre-approval of the FDA because whole foods are GRAS. Whole foods are foods that are unprocessed or unrefined such as unprocessed meat, poultry and fish, fruits and vegetables, and non-homogenized milk (basically unprocessed milk; straight from the animal). The manufacturer bears responsibility for ensuring the product is not adulterated or misbranded. However if there is proof that the product is adulterated, or detrimental to human health (animal health for animal products), then the products may be taken back from the market and the manufacturer may be prosecuted. (Gertsberg, 2009) Controversies and issues raised The development and continuation of research in the whole issue regarding genetic engineering of any organisms itself raises much issues. However, most of the issues raised within the field of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are issues regarding perspective and ethics, since there is much fear and ambiguity that most people feel when they think and speak about this issue. Controversies with genetic engineering There are not enough, if there are any, substantial, academic, plain physical experimental proof that genetically modified organisms are hazardous to both the health of humans and the environment. The main issues raised regarding GMOs are that there is a risk there new allergens will arise from the ‘unknown’ effects of combining different DNA sequences with each other, increased toxicity levels in organisms do to a faster metabolism, the possibility of unwanted/unintended gene transfer between different species, loss of biodiversity and basically unknown possible effects on different organisms related. (Turner, 2007) There are also several other ethical issues raised, such as the monopoly of world food production by several ompanies, problems with intellectual property and non-mandatory labeling, which is the case in the United States. Non-mandatory labeling violates the rights of consumers to choose between ‘organic foods’ and genetically engineered foods. Monarch butterfly issue and Bt-Corn Several years ago, an issue was raised regarding how non-pest (non-targeted) species of organisms, the Monarch butterfly species in this case, were affected by t he delta endotoxins contained in the pollen of a certain species of Bt-Corn. The issue revolves around how Monarch butterflies population was in danger of being killed through the poisoning by the Bt toxins. Monarch butterflies would migrate and lay their eggs on areas near the Bt-Corn fields. Their larvae feed on milkweed plants, a species of plants that grow in same regions as the Bt-Corn. However, Bt-Corn pollen would scatter throughout the area and lay on these leaves. Several investigations revealed some mortality in Monarch butterfly caterpillars that consume these pollen-covered milkweed leaves. (Peairs, 2007) Following the recent controversy, a number of private parties assembled and conducted workshops and investigations regarding this issue sponsored by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the United States. Scientists and researchers were assembled from U. S. and Canadian universities, ARS members and several other environmental organizations, in a joint effort to prove whether the issue has a scientific basis. (Hellmich, 2008) Laboratory experiments done with pure Crystal toxins (Bt toxins) mixed with artificial diets revealed that a certain type of Cry toxin, Cry1Ab, was harmful to Monarch caterpillars but other types of the Cry toxins were not toxic to them. Field studies done along with lab experiments conclude that there were not any adverse effects observed on the Monarch caterpillars who fed on milkweed leaves dusted with natural levels of the commonly found Bt-Corn pollen species. All but the single Cry toxin proved to be safe. The results of this experiment caused for the termination of the production of Bt-Corn species 176, which expressed high amounts of Cry1Ab toxins. (Hellmich, 2008) Several other studies were conducted to compare between the mortality of Monarch caterpillars in agricultural and non-agricultural habitats, where there aren’t any Bt-Corn species in the area. Results from this experiment show no significant differences in mortality rates of the caterpillars. (Hellmich, 2008) Another study conducted compared the mortality rates of Monarch caterpillars exposed to Bt-Corn species and ‘organic’ corn species with the commonly used pesticide, cyhalothrin. Experimentations revealed how, â€Å"†¦nearly all monarch larvae on milkweed plants inside the field were killed. † Hence Bt-Corn is safer than traditional commercial insecticides and pesticides. (Hellmich, 2008) The final risk assessment brought forth by Hellmich regarding the Monarch population and Bt-Corn is that the risks are negligible since exposure of the Monarch caterpillars to Bt-Corn pollen is low. Furthermore, the current commercially available Bt-Corn species and hybrids revealed low toxicity. Hellmich concludes that, â€Å"The bottom line from these studies is that all commercial Bt corn hybrids have negligible effects on populations of monarch butterflies, especially when compared with traditional insecticides. † (Hellmich, 2008) Evaluation In conclusion, through research and investigations conducted by researchers across the world, we can see how the commercialization of Bt-Corn for past 14 years have significantly benefitted both society and the environment through the ability of farmers to cut down costs, usage of energy, fuel and CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, increase in yields and decrease in the use of harmful chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides. We also see that most of the issues raised surrounding the issue of Bt-Corn and genetically engineered organisms are mostly just a matter of perspective and preferences. Lack of education and an open perspective regarding genetically modified organisms is the main hindrance towards improvements in the current agricultural field.

The Maori Culture Essay -- Zealand Religion Spiritual Essays Papers Na

The Maori Culture Introduction The following paper examines the history and religion of the ancient Maori people. It is my belief that exploration of traditional belief systems and ritualistic practices will lead to a greater understanding of the Maori culture in present-day New Zealand. The objective of the paper is to illustrate the Maoris’ unique perception and spiritual connection with their natural environment. Brief Maori History The Maori, â€Å"Children of Heaven†, are the indigenous people of New Zealand. It has been thought that Polynesian navigator Kupe, discovered New Zealand in 950 AD, and named the island Aotearoa, â€Å"Land of the long white cloud†.1 The Maori migrated to New Zealand from the tropical islands of Polynesia in the Pacific Ocean. The long voyage was made possible by the Maoris’ ability to use the stars, birds’ flights, cloud patterns, and the water’s color to guide their canoes to shore.1 Upon arrival, the Maori settled into various tribes (Iwi) and sub-tribes (Hapu) across the island.3 In order to adapt to the cool, damp climate and rough terrain of New Zealand, the Maori created durable shelter and clothing. They resourcefully utilized the wood and flax fibers from the abundant forests to build homes and weave clothing.4 The Maori tribes were able to evolve and flourish as a result of hunting and agriculture. The relative isolation of the island enabled the Maori to develop a rich, unique culture.5 Thus, the Maori culture was able to resist crumbling under European colonization in 1769. Regardless of the Europeans’ incessant fight for land ownership, the Maori persisted in viewing that the land as â€Å"Mother Earth’s placenta† and not belonging to anyone.3 It is remarkable that the Maori withstood... ... belong to humans; rather the humans belong to the land.3 The perspective that humans play a small role in the universe’s movement is a humbling thought. The Maori live their lives as human beings, while allowing nature to live its life. As seen above with the seasonal rituals, the Maori have a deep understanding, reliance, and respect for nature. It is their brothers’ that bring the seasonal weather changes and the life cycles that result. Thus, the Maori view the variable climate of New Zealand in a deep, meaningful light. Bibliography http://www.geocites.com/TheTropics/Shores/9338/culture.htm 1 http://www.crystalinks.com/maori.html http://travel-by-mouse.com/page.asp?PageID=151&LangID=2 5 http://www.pacificislandtravel.com/new_zealand/about_destin/maoritanga.html 6 http://www.ace.net.au/darkmoon/kiwipag.htm 7 http://www.hakoke.com/wheel.html

A Marketing Strategy

â€Å"Health is Wellness, Relieve Stress and Feel Better Today† is an adage that most people are adopting today to find relief from the stress and strains of a hard day in the workplace. More and more people are increasingly realizing the importance of exercise and mental well being in their daily lives. The growing number of people opting for memberships to health clubs and local gyms are an indicator of changing lifestyle and health awareness. Unwinding in the gym at the end of a stressful day is catching on. The fact that people are well informed about the ills of an unhealthy lifestyle and the repercussions that it may have on the body is one of the major factors contributing to the mushrooming of fitness and wellness services across the world. High stress levels at work and multi-tasking roles and responsibilities assumed by an individual are weaning away the energy levels and coping abilities. These are some of the other factors that have led people to join the fitness and wellness centers. Exercising can not only help maintain weight, avoid health problems that infect millions in the world today, relieve stress but also infuse a feel good and look good attitude. A positive outlook to life and high energy levels to do things better are some of the side effects of following a strict fitness routine. The term wellness indicates the willingness to manage stress, a good health score, and a positive attitude to life. Moreover the gym provides a platform for social interactions that bring up the motivational levels for daily exercising. The gyms and spas that were considered a luxury lifestyle yesterday have become a part of the lifestyle today. The extra cost is not an important factor to those who believe in the wellness of the inner self. The health and wellness industry is a billion dollar industry having a simple product that appeals to all – a healthy lifestyle. Executive Summary The high revenue earning potential of this industry has offset many enterprises to launch healthcare and wellness service centers across the globe. Small local gyms to luxurious health resorts have paved their success stories by enticing millions of clients with their personalized health and wellness programs. The changing dynamics of the industry has redefined the health and wellness concept. The industry now offers a total image change to its clients who want an overall improvement in their looks and physique. The Company Background Health to Wealth Associates is one such facility located in the heart of the Kansas City provides health solutions and fitness regimes for all age groups. The facility employs well-trained, certified staff with fitness equipment catering to the wide-ranging consumer needs.   The company has invested in attractive interiors and latest gym equipment in a wide spread out area where clients can feel the relaxing ambience of the place. The facility offers – Spa and massage services Personalized fitness programs with personal trainers Exercising in groups for higher motivational levels Diet and nutrition plans Gym equipment for cardio and weight training The company motto â€Å"Health is Wellness, Relieve Stress and Feel Better Today† relates easily to the consumers and has helped tremendously in gaining popularity and attracting more clients.   The company has witnessed an overall increase of 6% in revenue earnings in the past five years of operation. The company endeavors to open two more locations in the next five-year period as part of its expansion program. Great location, high quality service from well-trained staff and an aggressive market penetration strategy has given this company a competitive edge over the other players in the industry. Market SWOT Analysis A SWOT analysis of the Health to Wealth Associates reveals the market dynamics that govern the industry trends. Strengths: Well-trained staff providing excellent customer service. The state of the art equipment catering to wide variety of client exercising requirements with personal trainers and fitness programs A well-designed spa with wide range of massages services with diet and nutritional counseling. Weaknesses: The facility can cater to only 30 clients at a time. The premium pricing of the services and membership fees as opposed to local gyms. Non-existent baby-sitting facilities for women with children. Opportunities: Plans for expansion with more outlets opening in different geographical areas. A well-planned brand positioning and awareness marketing strategy using advertising and publicity campaigns. Tie up with other leading nutritional supplements shops to entice the customers. Introduction of family-oriented fitness training programs to attract more customers Addition of baby-sitting facility or children’s play area. Threats: Local gyms and massage parlors offering services at cheaper rates. Entry of leading brands and outlets in the vicinity. Enrolling enough members at the onset. Getting a steady supply of qualified and well-trained employees. This SWOT analysis highlights the issues and concerns that face the company along with the competitive and operational advantages that will steer the company in its aggressive marketing and promotional strategy. Market Analysis A health and wellness center that offers holistic and healthy lifestyle and one that encompasses the three facets of health – physical, emotional, and spiritual is required for a successful venture. The rising attraction of consumers towards gyms and spas has inculcated a healthy lifestyle that has become synonymous with healthy profits in the industry. It has been observed that people are not averse to paying more for quality and personalized services in this sector. This is one of the most attractive elements of the industry – a high market demand and high revenue prospects. But the industry is capital-intensive. The high profile equipment and gadgets are essential capital investment items and cannot be compromised in terms of quality. The business requires substantial funds for start up though the returns are high. The key ingredients to running a successful venture is – Well-trained and certified employees to ensure quality service. An aggressive and effective advertising campaign to create consumer awareness and entice more clients. As part of its market expansion strategy Health to Wealth Associates plan to adopt the following strategy to penetrate the market segment: Employ health experts to counsel the needs and requirements of the clients. Rolling out membership schemes that provide the members with discounted services and free consultations. Introduction of guest passes that will enable non-members to enjoy the services of the facility based on their income. Promotional campaigns for healthier lifestyle using the company slogan â€Å"Health is Wellness, Relieve Stress and Feel Better Today.† Health and wellness workshops for promoting the client base. A web site promoting the services of the facility. Tie up with nutritional supplement provider as a strategy for client retention. Financial Projections The company has reported a 6% annual increase in revenues. Based on the last few years’ performance and the implementation of the above-mentioned strategies the company projects an annual increase of 10% in the revenues earned in the next five years. The company envisages an increase of 8% in the net profit in the next two years’ of operation. Conclusion The company should endeavor to capitalize on the growing fitness and wellness concept in the industry. Adopting changes in the service delivery, offering wide range of choices to the customer, and an aggressive advertising campaign to push the company’s products will lure the consumer senses. The essence of success in this industry lies in identification of niche markets, use of updated technology and strategic partnerships with influential and well-known brands in the industry. References: 1.   Living the Good Life – http://www.goodlifefitness.com/newsletter.aspx – accessed on 18th December,2007 2.   The ISPA 2004 Spa Industry Study – Executive Summary – accessed on 18th December, 2007 3.   How to Start a Gym – http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Start-a-Gym&id=749346 – accessed on 18th December, 2007 4.   The menu of Spa Experiences   Ã¢â‚¬â€œ accessed on 18th December, 2007 5.   Gym Business Plan – http://www.briangreens.com/gym-business/gym-business-plan/ – accessed on 18th December, 2007   

William Shakespeare s Sonnet 30 - 960 Words

Shakespeare s writing about love is exceptionally deep and intensely layered with numerous implications and utilization of rhyme and metaphors. The power of feeling, the profundity of thought, and serious creative energy are all to be found in his sonnets. Shakespeare s Sonnets clarify the value of human relationships by showing that friendship can end one’s own sadness, that love should be commemorated, and that marriage between true minds is loyal and consistent. â€Å"But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, / All losses are restored and sorrows end.† In Sonnet 30, a past friendship between two mates ends one’s own sadness and selfish sorrows. The speaker’s thoughts and feelings shift greatly throughout Sonnet 30. As the speaker sits alone peacefully and recalls the past, they get discouraged about everything they had once worked so hard for. This causes the speaker to sob about this important time squandered. â€Å"When to the sessions of sweet silent thought / I summon up remembrance of things past, / I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought, / And with old woes new wail my dear time’s waste† (1-4) One continues to sob about damages long over and groan about the loss of numerous things never to be seen again. The speaker torments themselves to relive every hardship that already had been cried about previously. Remembering the deaths of valuable companions is a fragile topic for most. 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The Fame of Coco Chanel - 629 Words

In the roaring 1920’s, women were in corsets, that restricted many women to not eat nor breathe. That’s when Coco Chanel change everything for women, that made her career in the fashion industry go through the roof. Before Coco became an icon in the fashion industry, she was put in an orphanage ever since her dad had left her sister and her. Coco was then raised by nuns, which is where she was taught to sew, a skill will help her to fame. Though her name wasn’t always Coco, her birth name was Gabrielle Chanel. Her nickname came from her first job as a singer at clubs around where she lived, that is France. It was up until her relationship with Etienne Balsan, that funded Coco’s first store. Her first store was located in Paris Cambon in 1910, where she sold hats for women. Coco later on left Etienne for one of his friends, Arthur Capel, that was wealthier than him. Arthur also help start up Coco’s fashion career. It wasn’t till Coco was seen wearing her husbands jersey that made her a fashion icon. Since then her career has been lucrative. Chanel introduced men clothing to women, she designed suits without collars and fitted shirts that made her an instant fashion icon. Coco Chanel’s clothing accentuated comfort to women in the 1920’s. After her death Coco Chanel has left popular fashion industry, she was important in the 1920’s that changed how women dressed. Coco Chanel was influential in the roaring 1920’s because she introduced men clothing into the women fashion. CocoShow MoreRelatedPersonal Statement : Empty Closet885 Words   |  4 Pageswill not solicit the mood for romance. If a touch of flirtatious personality is added, the person may end up with a replica of Coco Chanel’s â€Å"†¦little black dress, which seemed, at first glance, artless, rustic grab and impersonal. 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Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal - 844 Words

(3) In this statement he is estimating the amount of children in Ireland, and how many would be given up for consumption. He also includes an estimated price for the charge of nursing a poor child to be about two shillings and ten for the child after it has been plumped and sold. Swift follows by describing how many servings it would fulfill as well as how many people it could nourish. By presenting this information he makes the proposal seem possible, well thought out, and easily put into action. In order to convince his audience Swift has to be credible. He mentions thinking about his plan for many years and comparing it to plans put forth by others. He shows the plan was meticulously thought through and checked for flaws before being submitted for publication. Swift (1729) states, I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and a make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie, or a ragoust. (4) He includes references of people from America andShow MoreRelatedJonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal949 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"A Modest Proposal† by Jonathan Swift takes place in Dublin Ireland in the 18th century. The narrator is a very ironic character. His â€Å"modest† proposal is anything but modest. This short story takes place during a famine. Since there was a famine, Swift proposes the idea that people sell their one year old children to the rich so they would not be a burden to their family. One important way in which the author engages the audience’s attention and tries to help his readers see deeper politicalRead More Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal Essay1150 Words   |  5 PagesJonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal Swift was said to â€Å"declare at one stage in his life: ‘I am not of this vile country (Ireland), I am an Englishman’† (Hertford website). In his satire â€Å"A Modest Proposal,† he illustrates his dislike not only for the Irish, but for the English, organized religions, rich, greedy landlords, and people of power. It is obvious that Swift dislikes these people, but the reader must explore from where his loathing for the groups of people stems. I believe Swift notRead MoreIrony in Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal1101 Words   |  5 Pagesthe tome is usually kept serious and Irony and satire are widely used in such writings. On the other hand while describing the recent developments in genetic engineering, the tone would be objective and humor or satire would be ineffective here. Jonathan Swift was famous for his sarcastic remarks on the government of his days and his works are full of satire and irony which appear to be humorous but carry a sharp edge which make them effective for expressing political ideas. â€Å"Irony refers eitherRead More Jonathan Swifts Essay, A Modest Proposal659 Words   |  3 PagesJonathan Swifts Essay, A Modest Proposal Jonathan Swift in his essay, A Modest Proposal suggests a unique solution to the problem concerning poor children in Ireland. Swift uses several analytical techniques like statistics, induction, and testimony to persuade his readers. His idea is admirable because he suggests that instead of putting money into the problem, one can make money from the problem. However, his proposal is inhumane. Swift wrote his proposal for those that were tired ofRead MoreEssay on Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal1391 Words   |  6 Pages In Jonathan Swift’s essay, â€Å"A Modest Proposal†, Swift proposes that the poor should eat their own starving children during a great a famine in Ireland. What would draw Swift into writing to such lengths? When times get hard in Ireland, Swift states that the children would make great meals. The key factor to Swift’s essay that the reader must see that Swift is not literally ordering the poor to cannibalize. Swift acknowledges the fact of the scarcity of food and empathizes with the struggling andRead More Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal Essay459 Words   |  2 PagesJonathan Swift’s â€Å"A Modest Proposal†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Jonathan Swift’s â€Å"A Modest Proposal,† published in 1729, Swift engages in an extraordinary amount of irony and satire. Swift states that in order to reduce famine in Ireland and to solve the problems that they are having that eating children would be a good solution. This is not the purpose of Swift’s essay. The real intent was to get the people of Britain to notice that the ideas that they were coming up with were not any better than his satiricalRead MoreAnalysis Of Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal998 Words   |  4 Pagesbest way to eliminate the social issues that are influencing it.Swift starts by taunting and blaming the moms of the children by saying that if they are capable of finding work they should instead of asking for money. Swift, wrote the essay,A Modest Proposal as a sarcastic approach to show people that they are not showing any interest or even coming up with working plans to decrease these social problems, for exa mple, fetus removal, overpopulation, and poorness. Through his terribly twisted ideaRead MoreSummary Of Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal918 Words   |  4 PagesIrish. One of these people was a man named Jonathan Swift. In his essay â€Å"A Modest Proposal† Swift challenges the status quo of the time and place in which it was written by proposing that they eat the children of the poor, ending the hate between the Protestants and the Catholics, and suggesting that the landowners have mercy towards their tenants. In his essay, Swift first suggests that the population of Ireland eat the children of the poor. This proposal would shock anyone, but it was definitelyRead MoreAnalysis of Jonathan Swifts Essay A Modest Proposal903 Words   |  4 PagesJonathan Swifts 1729 essay A Modest Proposal deals with societal issues contemporary to him and is meant to provide harsh criticism in regard to values promoted by society at the time. The author uses this essay with the purpose of suggesting that he found the solution to financial problems experienced by the Irish during the era. By advising these people to sell their people to wealthy individuals in England, he intends to satirize society by emphasizing the cruel attitudes generally expressedRead MoreJonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal And The Daily Show1139 Words   |  5 Pagesgrievances and wait for slow and often ineffective changes to take place. However, in the eighteenth century Jonathan Swift broke societys norms through his highly disturbing and shocking satirical piece A Modest Proposal. Swift proposes to the English Protestants a cannibal solution for the Irish Catholic children who are dying of starvation and diseases on the streets each day. Swift’s far from â€Å"modest† solution paved the way for modern day satirical outlets like The Daily Show. In a time where news commentators

Early Inhabitants of Britain free essay sample

Early inhabitants of Britain: The Celts: A series of invasions began about the year 1000 B. C. And continued until the opening of the Christian era. The Celts invaded Britain and dominated the native peoples, merging with then but firmly establishing their own language and civilization. They brought to Britain a renewed interest in agriculture together with the age of iron. The last Celtic invaders were the tribes of the Belgae, who settled in south-eastern Britain. Their advanced agriculture, knowledge of arts and crafts, their military skill, their trade with the continent, their coinage and political organization under strong tribal chieftains made south-eastern Britain the best grain-producing portion of the island. The religion of the Belgae was dark and superstitious. They believed in spirits who lived in springs, rocks and sacred groves. There were priests known as Druids. They combined the functions of priests, teachers and magistrates or judges. In 55 B. C. Julius Caesar crossed the channel in the first Roman invasions of Britain. He obtained submission and a promise of tribute from the principal chieftains of south-eastern Britain. The Celts in Britain remained independent or almost another century. Roman Britain: almost a century after Caesar’s invasions, emperor Claudius dispatched a large army to make a conquest of Britain. The Romans controlled the lowland plain within five years and began at once to lay down the great military roads which radiated from London as a centre.It took the Romans longer to control the rest of the country, in particular the violent Celtic tribes in the mountainous areas. Although the Celts in Wales were eventually conquered, they were never romanized. A conquest in Scotland proved to be impossible, or at least not worth the cost. The Romans came to Britain to exploit the island, not to settle in the place of the inhabitants. Although Roman rule was efficient, it remained alien, and only temporary in its effects. The impact of Rome was far greater in the south. They encouraged urbanization.They began building four model Roman towns with public buildings, amphitheatres and baths and filled them with Roman citizens, largely retired soldiers. The governors then, encouraged Celtic princes and aristocrats to convert their tribal centers into cities, which never really flourished. Country life, on the other hand, grew in popularity since the wealthy class of Romano-Britons built houses in the country known as villas. The bulk of the population lived neither in towns nor in villas but in native villages, primitive collections of huts.They showed few indications of Romanization. During the first centuries of roman rule there was a marked increase in British commerce and industry. Romanization also introduced to Britain the atmosphere of the Mediterranean world with its Latin tongue and its new faith, Christianity. During the fourth century of Roman rule there were increasing signs that the Roman Empire was in decay and that the Roman position in Britain was in grave danger. Barbarian peoples were pressing in upon Rome. As the empire became paralyzed by political factionalism and weakened by barbarian attacks, Roman legions evacuated Britain to fight elsewhere and never returned. Finally, early in the fifth century, the Romans recalled the remaining soldiers and officials from Britain, leaving the British to defend themselves from the coming barbarians. What did the Romans leave that has had a lasting effect upon Britain? They left the roads which continued to be used for centuries and which marked out lines of communication that have not disappeared today.They left a tradition of urban life and recognition of the favorable position of London as a center for commerce and administration. They also left Christianity, which was strong enough to survive the Roman collapse. Besides this, the Romans left very little, which was almost completely destroyed by the new invaders. The Anglo-Saxons: Britain was invaded by Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who took possession of the plains, pushing the Celts to the mountains. Britain became England, the land of the Angles; from that time forward the English have been mostly of Anglo-Saxon blood.The invaders came from southern Denmark and northern Germany. They turned toward Britain because their lands were under pressure from the Huns and Avars. The Anglo-Saxons suffered a defeat at the hands of a British general; Ambrosius Aurelianus, who led the Celts to the important victory of Mount Badon. This victory is the basis of the legend of King Arthur, in which Ambrosius was made a king and his soldiers converted into Knights of the Round Table with all the glamour of medieval chivalry. The Anglo-Saxons were barbarians when they invaded Britain.Their religion was that of Norse mythology; their political organization that of the tribal king surrounded by young warriors and older counselors. The Anglo-Saxons delighted in war and were very cruel. The Anglo-Saxon warrior was not afraid of death. After the war leader and his warriors had cleaned the way, they were followed by the mass of freemen, who were farmers, and who appropriated the fields of the Celts and established the villages of medieval England. Below the freemen was a class of slaves, mostly captives in war. Lacking a tradition of national unity, the tribes set up separate kingdoms.Seven kingdoms, the heptarchy, emerged: Kent occupied by the Jutes, Essex, Sussex and Wessex settled by the Saxons, and East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria claimed by the Angles. Two themes of importance in Anglo-Saxon history are the conversion of the heathen invaders to Christianity and the movement of the kingdoms toward political unification. The church was able to construct an organization common to all England at the time when political unity was still far in the future. A united church pointed the way toward a united kingdom.Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons: Christianity came to the Anglo-Saxons in two different missions: one from the Celtic church in Ireland and Scotland, the other from the church in Rome. Although Christianity had penetrated into Ireland in Roman times, the true founder of the Irish Church was St. Patrick, who converted the heathen Irish and founded a church whose organization was Episcopal (governed by bishops). After St. Patrick’s death his organization disappeared and the church in Ireland was controlled by monasteries. The Irish church, separated from Rome by the barbarian invasions was very different from the Roman church.An Irish monk, Saint Columba, brought the faith to western Scotland in the 6th century and missionaries from the monastery he founded on the island of Iona were to help to convert the Anglo-Saxons in England. A group of missionaries from Rome arrived in Kent. They had been sent by Pope Gregory the Great, who had entrusted the mission to Augustine, a Benedictine monk. He was kindly received by the king of Kent, who had married a Christian Frankish Princess. Her presence in Kent prepared the way for the conversion of her husband. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury. When Augustine died he had introduced Christianity into two other kingdoms: Essex and East Anglia. Roman Christianity was brought into Northumbria in the early 7th century, which was followed by a violent pagan reaction. The origins of political unity: the political unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was not complete until the descendants of King Alfred rule over all of England in the late 10th century. Unification meant more than the conquest of one kingdom by another; it meant that the English felt themselves to be one people who will give obedience and submission to one single ruler.The Danes: the Danish incursions into England were part of a larger movement of the Scandinavian peoples who, making piracy a business, hurled their destructive raids against all the coasts of Europe. Coming by sea in their long narrow boats, these Vikings could land armies of several thousand warriors at unexpected places, could penetrate far up the rivers of Western Europe and escape with their booty, largely from monasteries before resistance was organized. They discovered Iceland, Greenland and North America. It is not easy to explain the origins of this movement.In Norway it may have been due to overpopulation. In Denmark as kings consolidated their position, they drove out rebels and rival princes who led great bands of fighting men abroad. The northmen were similar to the Anglo-Saxons of the 5th century, heathen warriors with a lust for steal and slaughter. They were very cruel. In England, Viking attacks changed from piracy to settlement in the 9th century. They destroyed the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia and had to be bought off by Mercia. King Alfred the Danes attacked Wessex just as king Alfred came to the throne.Alfred was the supreme hero of the Anglo-Saxons, a statesman and a scholar as well as a splendid general. His great task was to fight the Danes. Alfred gave money to the Danes on condition that they leave Wessex. Then he attacked them and defeated them. So, the Viking leader agreed to leave Wessex and accept Christianity, and Alfred was able to take possession of London. He made a treaty with the Viking leader which fixed a boundary between Wessex and the Danelaw, the Danish portion of the island, in the north and east of England. Alfred became a national hero.He was converting the kingship of Wessex into the kingship of England. Alfred improved the militia, known as the fyrd. He also fortified London and he attempted to build a navy, which met with moderate success. It was Alfred’s aim not merely to beat back the Danes but to restore the civilization they had nearly destroyed. He made a code of laws which stressed the protection of the weak against the strong. It was Alfred’s faith in education that is most amazing. He founded a palace school to which the aristocracy might send their sons.He also set himself the task of translating into Anglo-Saxon a number of Latin books. Alfred’s personality and character drew men to him and he is the one ruler of his country who is known as â€Å"the great†. Anglo-Saxon government: Anglo-Saxon institutions developed rapidly and were remarkable advanced. The king was the powerful and accepted ruler of all England. He appointed and removed officials and leading churchmen. In the Saxon period there was no capital city. The central government was the household of the king and moved with him from place to place.An Anglo-Saxon king was limited in power by his coronation oath, a promise given to defend church, to punish crime and violence and to temper his judgement with clemency and mercy. He was also limited by the ancient customs of the kingdom and to some extent by the witan. The king consulted the witan about most matters of importance and they acted together in serious matters. In times of crisis, the strongest member of the royal family became king and the legal heir to the throne was passed over. Most of England in the later Anglo-Saxon kingdom was divided into districts known as shires.The king needed an official who would be closer to the people and more devoted to the administration of a single shire. Such an official was the sheriff. One of his functions was to preside over the shire court, which assembled twice a year. The smallest unit of local government was the village, since urban life was not characteristic of the Anglo-Saxons. It was mainly an agricultural community. The Anglo-Saxon local government must also include the town or borough. A borough was surrounded by a wall which made it a fortress. It also contained a market. It was a place of trade.At the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, London, Norwich, York, Lincoln and Canterbury were important boroughs, London being by far the largest. The achievements of the Anglo-Saxons: from the Anglo-Saxons, England received its name, its language, its largest ethnic group, its shires, and, for the first time, territorial and political unity as a single kingdom. The Norman Conquest: The last English kings: after the death of Cnut’s sons, the witan turned back to the descendants of Alfred, selecting Edward. Edward was half Norman by birth, and he grew up in Normandy. Normandy was a duchy in western France.It was a kind of French Danelaw. When Edward became king, he surrounded himself with Normans and made French the language of the court. Edward was well intentioned but weak and incapable as a ruler. He had been educated by Norman monks, and at heart he remained a monk all his life, so much that he took a vow of chastity and produced no heir. A noble became the power behind the throne. That person was the earl of Wessex, and his son Harold. When Edward died, the witan selected Harold as king. The Norman invasions: William duke of Normandy prepared for an invasion of England. He insisted that Edward had named him as his heir and that Harold had given him a secret oath of support. The duke recruited an army of about seven thousand and offered his recruits the blessing of the pope and the promise of English lands. Harold was completely defeated and William advanced to London devastating the country. He was soon recognized as king of most of England. Norman monarchy: William brought with him the political and economic practices of Normandy, as an example, feudalism, which is an economic social and political system based on the holding of land granted in return for military service.Feudalism is originally a decentralized system since the landholders possessed great power. William imposed a more centralized system by increasing the strength of the monarchy. When structuring political feudalism in England, William made sure that no vassal could treat him as he had treated his lord. He decided to preserve Anglo-Saxon law and institutions. William was assisted by an assembly called the great council. It consisted of the king’s tenants-in-chief (barons who received land directly from the king). The functions of the great council did not differ much from those of the Anglo-Saxon witan.The great council was only in occasional session and the daily work of government was carried on by the king and the members of his household. The duties of the officers of the household were a strange mixture of official business and care for the domestic life of the king. These officers, together with the barons who were with William a good deal, formed the king’s small council. William retained several Anglo-Saxon institutions such as the courts of the shire. William made great use of the sheriff, giving him great powers.The manorial system: the Anglo-Saxon village retained its unity and the daily life of the peasants went on much as before. The Normans introduced the manor, an estate under a single lord which was farmed and administered as an agricultural entity. The property was consisting of two parts. The first was the lord’s demesne, that is, his portion of the arable land. In the economy of the manor, the cultivation of the lord’s demesne was vital. The second part of the manor comprised the arable strips of the peasants. They were bound to the soil and could be fetched back if they ran away.They had to work upon the demesne and give their lord a portion of the production of their own strips. The Domesday Book: William sent out officials to travel all over England. They were instructed to visit every shire so as to carry out an elaborated census of the ownership and wealth of the kingdom. This mass of information was compiled in the various volumes of what is known as Domesday Book. One theory says that Domesday Book was to from the basis for increased taxation. But it is possible that William may merely have wished to known in detail the extent and value of his conquest.Feudalism: It emerged in Western Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries. A baron who received English lands from William committed himself to become William’s man, his vassal, and to give him loyalty and military service. William in return promised protection to his vassal. This protection was military and legal. William held a feudal court which the baron must attend. If the vassal failed to perform his duty and service, his lands were forfeited. If the king broke the contract, the vassal could in extreme cases renounce his fealty in a declaration called defiance.There were various safeguards, known as the feudal incidents that protected the king in case the military service was not forthcoming: Relief: death ended the contract, and when a baron died the king might legally take back the land. What happened was that the heir paid the king a sum of money known as relief and was then invested with his father’s lands. Wardship: if the heir was a child unable to fulfil the military obligations, the king might take possession of the land and manage it for his own profit until the heir came of age.Marriage: if the descend was a woman, the king was in danger of losing the military service owed to him. The heiress might marry an enemy of the king and transfer her wealthy to him. Hence the king reserved the right to select a husband for an heiress. Escheat: if the vassal’s family became extinct the fief was escheated to the king, who regained complete control over it. Fine or alienation: A vassal wishing to sell a portion of his fief could not do so without the king’s consent and would normally pay a sum of money for the privilege of alienation.Forfeiture: a vassal who failed to perform his military service was tried in the king’s feudal court and, if found guilty, forfeited his lands, which then reverted to the king. These feudal incidents not only assured the king that knights’ service would be forthcoming from a fief but also emphasize the fact that the fief was not a gift but a conditional grant of land in which the king retained many rights. The king could ask for the feudal aids, sums of money payable by a vassal when the king was in financial need.These aids were payable in three occasions only: when the king knighted hi s eldest son, when his eldest daughter was going to get marry and when he was captured in war and must be ransomed. In the feudal system there was private jurisdiction. The barons who obtained lands from William also obtained the right to hold courts for the men living on their lands. A court known as the manorial court existed for the unfree peasants on each estate. A feudal court was held for the vassals of a lord who had granted a portion of his land to his knights or to other persons in return for military service.The barons began to grant lands to some of their knights in return for military service. This process was known as subinfeudation, and the knight who obtained a fief became the king’s subvassal. They held as much land as some of the smaller tenants-in-chief, and they were referred to as barons. The feudal institutions concerned only the nobility. The mass of the people, peasants and townsmen, had no part in the feudal system. The obligations of the peasants were regulated by ancient custom; the land could change hands without changing the duties and services of the peasants.